Trauma is a deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can have a significant impact on an individual’s psychological and physiological well-being. The way people respond to trauma can vary widely, but these responses are generally categorized into several types known as trauma responses. This guide explores the meaning, definition, stages, types, and common defence mechanisms associated with trauma responses. It also addresses how to manage these responses and outlines the best therapy options for trauma.
A trauma response is an automatic reaction that occurs when an individual encounters a threat or stressor that reminds them of a past traumatic event. These responses are survival mechanisms, ingrained in us as part of our evolutionary biology. They help protect us from perceived dangers but can become maladaptive when triggered by non-threatening situations.
A trauma response is the body's and mind's natural reaction to an overwhelming event or series of events that exceed an individual's ability to cope. These responses can manifest physically, emotionally, and behaviorally, and are often categorized into the "fight, flight, freeze, or fawn" responses.
It is exceptionally important that we realize that processing of trauma does not happen in a linear way. The processing of trauma is a very personal journey and can differ from person to person. Sometimes individuals will feel like they are making progress and then regress into a previous stage of the process and other times they can become stuck in a specific stage.
This is why it is so important to approach this topic with sensitivity and compassion.
In Psychology we recognize that there are many unique ways to approach the healing process for trauma. That’s why the stages and approaches may differ depending on the modality and framework used. However, there are 4 widely recognized stages of trauma processing:
This first step is all about finding your footing. Imagine it as creating a safe space where you can start to breathe a little easier and feel more secure. It’s about surrounding yourself with supportive people and building up the skills you need to handle stress and anxiety. This stage is like laying the foundation for the rest of your healing journey.
Once you feel a bit more grounded, it’s time to gently open the door to the past. This stage can be challenging, as it involves looking back at the painful experiences and making sense of them. It’s like piecing together a puzzle, and while it might bring up some strong emotions, it’s an essential part of understanding what happened. Sharing your story with trusted friends, family, or a therapist can be incredibly healing.
Trauma has a way of making us feel like we have lost parts of ourselves. It is imperative that we mourn what was lost and the person we could have been if the trauma had not occurred. Coming to terms with this reality can allow individuals to recognize their trauma and move forward.
People often find themselves going through the five stages of grief when working through this step.
Here is a summary on what the five stages of grief is:
Stage 1: Denial: This is the initial stage where individuals may struggle to accept the reality of the loss. It acts as a defence mechanism to help buffer the immediate shock, allowing the person to process the news gradually. People might feel numb or in disbelief, saying things like “This can’t be happening.”
Stage 2: Anger: As the denial fades, it’s common to experience frustration and anger. This anger can be directed at oneself, others, or the situation. It may feel unfair, and individuals might question why this happened to them. It’s important to recognize that this anger is a natural part of the healing process.
Stage 3: Bargaining: In this stage, individuals may attempt to negotiate with a higher power or make deals in hopes of reversing the loss or finding relief from the pain. This often includes “if only” statements, such as “If only I had done something differently.”
Stage 4: Depression: As reality sets in, the person may experience deep sadness and despair. This stage is marked by withdrawal, feelings of emptiness, and a sense of hopelessness. It’s a time for processing the emotional aspects of the loss and coming to terms with what has happened.
Stage 5: Acceptance: In the final stage, individuals begin to come to terms with the loss. Acceptance does not mean forgetting or no longer feeling the pain, but rather finding a way to move forward with the loss integrated into their life. They may start to experience a sense of peace and begin to engage with life again.
Following mourning, the next stage is about re-establishing connections. This might be reconnecting with relationships or integrating parts of the self that were lost or fragmented due to trauma. Reconnection allows individuals to move beyond their trauma, using the experience to build resilience and gain strength.
In this stage, the trauma is no longer the center of an individual’s life. They may feel at peace with their past and begin to move forward with newfound strength and wisdom. The trauma has been processed, and although it will always be a part of them, it no longer controls their responses or defines their life.
Understanding one’s own trauma responses, as well as recognizing those of others, is essential in navigating interpersonal relationships effectively and empathetically. The contrast of these opposing trauma responses—fight and flight—can complicate interpersonal dynamics, making it challenging for the individuals involved to communicate effectively and empathize with each other’s emotional states. This discord can lead to heightened tensions and misunderstandings, which, if not addressed, may exacerbate the very conflicts they hope to resolve.
Recognizing and understanding these differences in trauma responses is crucial for developing more effective communication strategies that respect the needs and boundaries of all parties involved. For instance, when someone with a fight response interacts with someone exhibiting a flight response, the situation demands a nuanced approach that considers both the urgency of the fight response and the need for space inherent in the flight response.
This response involves confronting the perceived danger head-on. It’s an aggressive response aimed at overpowering the threat. Physically, this might look like clenching fists, a raised voice, or even physical confrontation.
Here’s how you can identify a “fight” trauma response:
Aggression: This is perhaps the most recognizable aspect of the fight response. Individuals may display overt aggression, which could be verbal (yelling, threatening) or physical (hitting, pushing, or other forms of violence). The aggression is a defensive mechanism, intended to assert control over the situation and ward off the perceived threat.
Dominance: Attempts to dominate the situation or others involved can also manifest. This might include taking charge inappropriately, being overly assertive, or controlling the actions and decisions of others around them.
Hyperactivity: In some cases, the fight response can lead to hyperactivity or a frenetic energy. This can manifest as a sudden burst of activity where the individual seems unable to sit still or remain calm.
Resistance: Resistance to authority or guidance might occur, where the individual opposes suggestions or help from others, insisting on handling things in their own way.
It’s important to note that a “fight” response does not always mean that come across as physically aggressive.
The “fight” response, often associated with overt aggression or physical confrontation, can manifest in various non-violent ways that are subtler yet equally significant.
Verbal Aggression: The person might raise their voice, use harsh or critical language, and engage in blaming or accusatory statements. They often dominate the conversation, interrupting or talking over the other person.
Physical Posturing: Their body language might become more aggressive, such as standing up taller, leaning forward, or using pointed gestures. They may invade the other person’s personal space to assert dominance.
Defensiveness: There’s a tendency to immediately defend oneself against any perceived criticism, often interpreting neutral comments as attacks. This can lead to miscommunication and escalation of the conflict.
Control: The person may try to control the situation by dictating the terms of the conversation, dismissing the other person’s points, or insisting on being right and winning the argument.
Anger: Anger is typically the predominant emotion displayed during a fight response. It can range from mild irritation to intense rage, depending on the situation and the individual’s personal triggers and coping mechanisms.
Resolution Difficulty: Due to the confrontational nature of this response, resolving the conflict can be challenging. The person might persist in the argument even when it becomes unproductive, making it hard to reach a compromise or understanding.
This approach can be overwhelming, particularly when interacting with someone who exhibits a “flight” response, which is characterized by a desire to avoid confrontation and withdraw from stressful interactions. The immediate and assertive nature of the “fight” response, therefore, can inadvertently escalate the stress and discomfort of someone with a “flight” orientation, leading to increased friction and misunderstanding between the parties.
The “flight” response in trauma is one of the primary reactions individuals may have when faced with perceived threats or stressful situations. This response is rooted in the body’s instinctual mechanism to protect itself by escaping dangerous situations.
Some common indications that someone is experiencing a flight trauma response include:
Avoidance of Triggering Situations: Individuals exhibiting a flight response often avoid situations, places, or people that might trigger memories of trauma. This can manifest as skipping events, withdrawing from social interactions, or even quitting jobs.
Physical Withdrawal: The urge to physically flee from situations can be literal, with individuals often leaving a place unexpectedly or developing habits that keep them near exits or escape routes.
Overactivity: Engaging excessively in activities such as work, exercise, or hobbies can also be a form of flight. It serves as a distraction that helps avoid dealing with traumatic memories or feelings.
Emotional Numbing: Keeping constantly busy may also serve to numb emotions. The individual avoids deep reflections or conversations that might bring up traumatic memories.
Compulsive Behaviours: Some might develop compulsive behaviours as a flight mechanism. These can include obsessive cleaning or organizing, which are attempts to control or manage anxiety about trauma indirectly.
What does the flight trauma response look like in interpersonal conflicts?
Avoidance: The person might physically remove themselves from the situation by leaving the room or even the premises to avoid the confrontation. This could be sudden and without much communication about why they are leaving.
Shutting Down Communication: They might stop responding during the conversation, giving only non-committal answers like “I don’t know” or minimal responses. They effectively shut down any meaningful exchange, not contributing further to the discussion.
Distraction: The individual might change the subject abruptly or try to divert the conversation to avoid the conflict or any direct confrontation about the issue at hand.
Minimizing the Problem: They might downplay the disagreement or deny that there is a problem at all, suggesting that it’s not worth arguing about, to quickly move past the uncomfortable situation.
Passivity: Exhibiting passive behavior by not engaging or showing much emotion, which can be a way of withdrawing from the situation internally, even if they physically remain present.
The “Freeze” response in the context of trauma reactions is a critical survival strategy activated when an individual perceives a threat but neither fighting back nor fleeing is seen as viable. This response can be understood as part of the body’s innate defence mechanism, deeply rooted in evolutionary biology.
Some signs that someone is operating from the basis of a “Freeze” trauma response include:
Physical Immobility: When freezing, the body may become immobile. This is not a conscious decision but a physiological response where muscle activity is minimized.
Emotional Numbness: Emotional responses can be blunted. The individual may feel detached from their emotions or numb. This emotional numbness serves as a psychological protective measure, helping the individual cope with overwhelming distress by not fully experiencing it.
Dissociation: Dissociation is a common aspect of the freeze response. It involves a disconnection from reality which can range from mild detachment from the environment (feeling spaced out) to more severe disconnections like depersonalization (feeling detached from one’s body) and derealization (feeling that the world is not real).
Hypervigilance: Despite the outward appearance of stillness, internally, the individual may be in a state of high alert. This paradoxical state means that while they are physically frozen, their senses are acutely tuned to the environment, scanning for any signs of danger.
Cognitive Slowdown: Decision-making processes and thinking may significantly slow down or feel inaccessible during a freeze response. This cognitive slowing is a part of the overall immobilization experienced during the freeze.
What does the freeze response look like in a interpersonal argument?
Speechlessness: The person might suddenly become very quiet, unable to find words or physically speak, even if they were actively participating in the conversation moments before. This can be mistaken for giving the silent treatment, but it’s actually an involuntary shutdown response.
Stillness: There may be minimal to no body movements. The individual might sit or stand unusually still, almost as if they are frozen in place. This lack of motion is a stark contrast to the more animated or agitated movements typically associated with arguments.
Avoiding Eye Contact: The person might stare blankly at a fixed point, or their eyes may seem unfocused. They often avoid eye contact, not out of disinterest but as a part of the dissociative aspect of freezing, detaching from the immediate reality.
“Fawn” is one of the trauma responses that is less discussed compared to the more commonly recognized fight, flight, or freeze responses. This response involves a pattern of behavior where the individual seeks to avoid negative repercussions by appeasing or placating others.
t is rooted in the belief that safety and acceptance can only be achieved by meeting the needs of others, often at the expense of one’s own needs.
This response is typically developed in childhood, particularly in environments where caregivers are volatile, abusive, or neglectful. Children in these environments may find that the only way to avoid conflict or abuse is to become extremely compliant and pleasing, thus they learn to fawn.
Signs that someone is exhibiting “Fawn” trauma response:
Excessive People-Pleasing: Individuals with a fawn response are often hyper-attuned to the preferences and expectations of others. They go out of their way to accommodate others, often doing more than what is asked of them to ensure everyone else’s comfort.
Difficulty Saying No: Due to a deep-seated fear of rejection or conflict, fawners struggle to refuse requests. They may take on burdensome commitments or tolerate mistreatment to maintain peace or approval.
Lack of Boundaries: Personal boundaries are often poorly defined or entirely absent in those who exhibit the fawn response. They might allow others to dictate their decisions and behaviors, leading to a loss of personal autonomy.
Conflict Avoidance: Fawners typically avoid confrontations at all costs. They may agree with opinions they do not believe or refrain from expressing their true feelings to avoid upsetting others.
When confronted, people in a fawn trauma response may exhibit the following behaviours:
Overly Accommodating: The person might agree with everything the other person says, regardless of their own opinions or feelings. They may rush to say things like “You’re right, I’m wrong,” even if it compromises their truth or integrity.
Avoiding Confrontation: Instead of expressing their discontent or disagreement, they would focus on making the other person feel comfortable and calm, even if it means not addressing issues that are important to them.
Apologizing Excessively: The person might repeatedly apologize for the situation or for upsetting the other person, even if they have not done anything wrong. This is an attempt to restore harmony and reduce tension.
Changing the Subject: To avoid escalation, they might try to change the subject to something neutral or positive, or make light of the situation, steering away from the conflict.
Caretaking: They might attempt to cater to the needs of the other person, offering help or support as a way to make the other person feel better or to regain their favor.
Self-Neglect: In the process of trying to appease the other person, they may ignore their own emotional or physical needs. Their focus is on the other person’s well-being rather than their own.
Trauma is an insidious force that can drastically shape human behaviour. Individuals who have experienced significant emotional, physical, or psychological trauma often develop defence mechanisms.
In discussing trauma responses, it is crucial to recognize their practical, day-to-day manifestations beyond the general pop-psychology article and Tik Tok explanation videos.
The following are some of the most common defence mechanisms you may observe in individuals as they navigate their daily lives:
Constantly apologizing is a common defense mechanism, especially among individuals who have been exposed to criticism, emotional abuse, or environments where they felt unsafe. This behavior can stem from a deep-seated fear of causing conflict or incurring the displeasure of others.
Apologizing frequently, even for things beyond one’s control or when no mistake has been made, is often a subconscious attempt to ward off any potential backlash or punishment. It becomes an ingrained habit over time, where the individual may feel they are constantly at fault, reflecting low self-worth and an internalized belief that they are responsible for the happiness of others.
For those who have been through trauma, the act of apologizing can feel like a safety net, diffusing tension and allowing them to navigate life with fewer perceived threats.
Over-explaining is a prevalent defence mechanism where individuals feel compelled to provide excessive details and justifications for their actions or decisions.
This behaviour is frequently rooted in a history of feeling misunderstood, unfairly judged, or scrutinized. Trauma survivors might have internalized the idea that they must pre-emptively clear up any possible misinterpretations to avoid conflict or rejection.
By over-explaining, they aim to prevent accusations or negative assumptions that could trigger anxiety or stress. However, this habit can be exhausting and mentally taxing, leading to heightened anxiety and a cycle of self-doubt. Over time, the need to explain every action can erode confidence, reinforcing a sense of inadequacy.
A heightened startle reflex is a common physiological response among trauma survivors.
This reflex can be triggered by loud noises, sudden movements, or even seemingly benign stimuli like someone unexpectedly entering the room.
For individuals with post-traumatic stress, their nervous system may remain on high alert, constantly scanning the environment for threats. The brain’s fight-or-flight response becomes overly sensitive, reacting disproportionately to minor disturbances.
While this defence mechanism evolved to protect us from danger, in the context of trauma, it can become an involuntary and distressing part of daily life. Over time, this hypervigilance can contribute to chronic stress, making it difficult for individuals to feel at ease in their surroundings.
The need for control is another defence mechanism frequently observed in those who have experienced trauma.
When someone endures an event in which they felt powerless or helpless, they may respond by becoming highly controlling in their personal or professional lives.
This need for control can manifest in various ways, such as micromanaging situations, rigidly organizing one’s environment, or becoming perfectionistic.
At its core, this behaviour is a way to create predictability and safety in a world that once felt unpredictable and dangerous. However, while this mechanism offers a temporary sense of security, it can also lead to strained relationships and increased anxiety.
The pursuit of control can be exhausting, as life often resists neat categorization, leaving the individual vulnerable to frustration and disappointment.
Stonewalling involves emotionally shutting down in response to stress, conflict, or perceived threats.
This behaviour can manifest as silence, avoiding eye contact, or completely disengaging from the conversation.
For trauma survivors, stonewalling may be an unconscious attempt to protect themselves from further emotional pain. By withdrawing emotionally, they create a barrier between themselves and the external world, hoping to avoid the risk of being hurt again.
However, stonewalling can prevent meaningful communication and can lead to isolation, both emotionally and socially. While it serves as a form of self-preservation in the moment, over time, it can damage relationships and hinder emotional healing.
Raising one’s voice is often linked to the “fight” response in the brain’s fight-or-flight mechanism.
When faced with stress or conflict, some individuals may resort to raising their voice as a form of self-defence. This behaviour can develop as a way to assert control in a threatening situation or to ensure that one’s needs are heard after previously feeling silenced or powerless.
However, it can also create further conflict and miscommunication, as others may perceive this behaviour as aggressive or confrontational.
Trauma survivors who raise their voices may not necessarily intend to be aggressive but are instead reacting out of fear or anxiety. Understanding the roots of this behaviour is key to addressing it and finding healthier ways to communicate under stress.
People pleasing is a manifestation of the “fawn” response, where individuals go out of their way to appease others in order to avoid conflict or rejection.
For trauma survivors, this can be a deeply ingrained behaviour, often developed in environments where maintaining peace was necessary for survival. By placing the needs of others above their own, they believe they can prevent further emotional harm.
This behaviour often comes at the expense of their own well-being, as they continuously suppress their true feelings and desires in order to maintain harmonious relationships. Over time, this constant self-sacrifice can lead to burnout, resentment, and a weakened sense of self.
Hyper-independence is a defence mechanism where individuals refuse to rely on others, often after experiencing betrayal or abandonment.
Trauma survivors may have learned that depending on others leads to disappointment or pain, so they develop an intense need to be self-sufficient. While independence is typically seen as a positive trait, hyper-independence can be isolating.
By rejecting help from others, individuals may miss out on the support and connection that are essential for healing. This behaviour is often rooted in fear of vulnerability, as allowing others to get too close could potentially expose them to harm once again.
Sensory overload is a common challenge for those who have experienced trauma.
Trauma can heighten an individual’s sensitivity to external stimuli, making noisy, crowded, or bright environments overwhelming. This response is often linked to hypervigilance, where the nervous system remains in a heightened state of alertness.
When the brain is overloaded with sensory input, it can become difficult to focus, process information, or remain calm. For trauma survivors, seemingly ordinary situations, such as being in a crowded mall or attending a social gathering, can quickly become overwhelming, triggering anxiety or panic.
Managing sensory overload often requires creating calm, controlled environments where the individual feels safe.
Understanding and intervening in this cycle are crucial for healing and for the prevention of further psychological distress and dysfunction.
The cycle begins with an initial traumatic event that overwhelms an individual’s ability to cope using normal psychological defences. This event prompts the formation of adaptive, albeit often maladaptive, defence mechanisms such as fight, flight, freeze, or fawn. These mechanisms are intended to protect the individual from perceived threats but may not be suitable for dealing with everyday life stressors.
In everyday situations, certain cues or stressors may evoke feelings similar to those experienced during the initial trauma. This reactivation of the trauma response can lead to possible re-traumatization if the individual perceives the current stress as a continuation or repeat of the original trauma. This is often due to unresolved emotional residues such as fear, helplessness, or horror.
When a triggering event occurs, the individual’s established defense mechanism (fight, flight, freeze, or fawn) is activated in an attempt to manage the distress. These responses are automatic and are not always appropriate or effective in the given situation, leading to potential complications in social and personal functioning.
The employment of these defence mechanisms can provide temporary relief from the immediate perceived threat. However, because these mechanisms often do not address the underlying emotional pain or fear, they serve more as a stopgap than a solution.
As the triggering event or argument goes unresolved, it leads to a build-up of internalized emotions such as guilt, shame, or aggression. This emotional build-up can create a pervasive sense of tension, akin to “walking on eggshells,” where the individual constantly strives to avoid the next triggering event.
Due to the unresolved nature of their trauma and the repetitive activation of their defence mechanisms, individuals often become hypervigilant. This heightened state of awareness to potential threats in their environment makes them more susceptible to being triggered again. Hypervigilance, while a protective measure, often exacerbates feelings of anxiety and stress, making everyday interactions fraught with perceived danger.
The cycle is perpetuated as new triggers occur, often exacerbated by the hypervigilant state. Each occurrence reinforces the defence mechanisms, potentially leading to more severe and less controllable reactions over time.
The length of time trauma affects someone really depends on a variety of factors, including the type and severity of the trauma. For some people, trauma might cause short-term effects, but for others, especially those who’ve experienced repeated or severe trauma (like abuse or violence), the impact can last for years, sometimes even a lifetime.
Trauma can change the brain in ways that make emotions harder to manage, especially when it comes to anxiety or depression. For example, if someone goes through trauma in childhood and then faces more stress as an adult, the effects can pile up and make things worse.
Some people recover fairly quickly with the right therapy and support, but for others, symptoms like PTSD might stick around if left untreated. It really varies from person to person, and how long trauma lasts depends on many factors, including how soon they get help
Research shows that it’s possible to change negative trauma responses and instinctual defence mechanisms with the right therapeutic approaches.
There’s also a growing focus on trauma-informed care, which emphasizes creating supportive environments that understand how trauma impacts emotions and behavior. This approach is being used in therapy as well as other areas like education and healthcare, aiming to help people feel safer and more empowered while working through their trauma.
So yes, with consistent effort and the right kind of support, people can definitely work on healing and changing how they respond to trauma over time.
Everyone’s different so not every therapy or approach is going to be a fit for everyone. That’s why it’s helpful to team up with a professional counsellor to figure out the best therapy that’ll work for you and help you work through your trauma.
In South Africa, some of the most commonly used modalities are:
The WITS Trauma Model comes from South Africa’s University of the Witwatersrand. It combines different therapeutic techniques, mainly blending cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) and psychodynamic elements.
This model is all about helping people work through traumatic experiences in a structured way. It’s often used in settings like group therapy to create a safe space for sharing and healing. The goal is to help people process what they’ve been through, reduce symptoms like anxiety and ultimately build resilience.
Trauma-Informed CBT is a type of therapy that’s a bit more sensitive to the effects of trauma.
It uses the same core ideas as regular CBT, like working to change negative thoughts and behaviours, but it’s tailored specifically for people who have gone through traumatic events.
The idea is to help clients feel safe while working through their trauma, all while understanding how trauma impacts their mind and emotions. It’s used to treat a wide range of trauma-related challenges.
Prolonged Exposure Therapy is all about facing the things you’ve been avoiding after a traumatic event.
It’s a method where you gradually confront trauma-related memories and situations, whether it’s in your mind (imaginal exposure) or in real life (in-vivo exposure).
The goal is to reduce the emotional impact of these memories and lessen avoidance behaviours. Over time, this process helps people feel less overwhelmed by their past experiences.
Determining if you are experiencing a trauma response involves recognizing specific symptoms and patterns in your behaviour that are triggered by memories or reminders of past traumatic events.
You can do this by:
Self-Observation and Reflection:
Journaling:
Therapy and/or Counselling:
Feedback from Trusted Individuals:
Identifying trauma responses is a significant step towards healing, as it allows for targeted strategies to manage these responses effectively.
Trauma bonds, which refer to the deep emotional connections formed between an individual and their abuser, are indeed recognized as a psychological phenomenon.
They often occur in situations of prolonged abuse where the victim develops a sense of loyalty or attachment to the abuser, despite the harm being inflicted.
Trauma responses can be triggered by various factors including sensory reminders of the traumatic event (such as sights, sounds, or smells), emotional stressors, or even internal states like anxiety or fear.
Common triggers include anniversaries of the event, interactions with people involved, or even related environments or situations that make you feel similar to the initial traumatic event.
Trauma debriefing is often recommended immediately following a traumatic event to mitigate the effects of acute stress and prevent the development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
However, its necessity depends on the severity of the trauma, the psychological resilience of the individual, and their support system.
Courtois, C. A., & Ford, J. D. (2013). *Treatment of complex trauma: A sequenced, relationship-based approach*. Guilford Press.
Lee, E., Faber, J., & Bowles, K. (2022). A review of trauma specific treatments (TSTs) for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). *Clinical Social Work Journal, 50*(1), 147-159. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-021-00816-w
O’Shea Brown, G. (2021). An overview of psychotherapy modalities for the treatment of complex trauma. In *Healing complex posttraumatic stress disorder* (Essential Clinical Social Work Series). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-61416-4_8
Sacchi, L., Merzhvynska, M., & Augsburger, M. (2020). Effects of cumulative trauma load on long-term trajectories of life satisfaction and health in a population-based study. *BMC Public Health, 20*(1), 1612. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09663-9
Seok, B. J., Jeon, S., Lee, J., Cho, S. J., Lee, Y. J., & Kim, S. J. (2020). Effects of early trauma and recent stressors on depression, anxiety, and anger. *Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11*, 744. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00744
Shaughnessy, E. V., Simons, R. M., Simons, J. S., & Freeman, H. (2023). Risk factors for traumatic bonding and associations with PTSD symptoms: A moderated mediation. *Child Abuse & Neglect, 144*, 106390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106390
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Disclaimer: All articles are reviewed and edited for quality control by a HPCSA Registered Counsellor. However, this content is intended to be used for educational and/or entertainment purposes and should not be taken as medical advice. Please reach out to a medical professional if you have concerns regarding your mental health.
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